From Movements to Parties in Latin America. The Evolution...

The author analyzes how indigenous people’s movements in Latin America transformed into viable political parties. For her, these new parties are good for the democracy because they enrich and enhance the legitimacy of the political and electoral system. She assumes that the primary link between state and society are the parties and its accountability impact on the institutions. She proves that the crisis of the traditional parties and the transformation of the historical electoral constrains were determinant factors that contributed to ethnic party formation and consolidation. Van Cott conclusions were based on the study of six countries: Bolivia, Ecuador, Colombia, and Venezuela as successful cases, and Peru and Argentina as failed†¦show more content†¦Therefore, the asked question is under which conditions ethnic parties tended to merge and to endure? To untangle this question the book uses primary and secondary sources. The primary ones are the result of several years of field work in situ in the mentioned countries, except Argentina; and the secondary ones are an exhaustive review of the scholarly over democratic regimes and electoral systems, political parties and ethnic parties, and social movements in the international and national levels. While doing this, she builds her own basic category of analysis: the ethnic party. An ethnic party is defined as any political organization with a strong ethnic component: ethnic leaders, majority of ethnic members, or have ethnic or cultural related core demands. Within these strictures, she explores intrinsic and external reasons for party formation. When the indigenous communities realize that they could keep their traditions, their land, and basically, their autonomy, and at the same time be politically independent not a convenient minority for the left or for the dominant parties; they were internally ready to face the changes coming from the outside. This consolidation process takes approximately four to ten years when the social movement shapes itself and recognizes its capacity and political possibilities. The external circumstances got more attention from the author. The permissiveShow MoreRelatedStephen P. Robbins Timothy A. Judge (2011) Organizational Behaviour 15th Edition New Jersey: Prentice Hall393164 Words   |  1573 PagesOrganizational Behavior This page intentionally left blank Organizational Behavior EDITION 15 Stephen P. Robbins —San Diego State University Timothy A. Judge —University of Notre Dame i3iEi35Bj! Boston Columbus Indianapolis New York San Francisco Upper Saddle River Amsterdam Cape Town Dubai London Madrid Milan Munich Paris Montreal Toronto Delhi Mexico City Sao Paulo Sydney Hong Kong Seoul Singapore Taipei Tokyo Editorial Director: Sally Yagan Director of Editorial Services:

A Theory Of Sexism As Ambivalence Toward Women And...

Purpose The purpose of this study was to develop a theory of sexism devised as ambivalence toward women and validate a corresponding measure, the Ambivalent Sexism Inventory (ASI). Past research on sexism has been predominantly conceptualized as hostility toward women. However, from a historical and contemporary perspective, images of women have not been strictly negative. Within the realm of sexism, images of women can also be seen in a â€Å"positive† manner. Therefore, Glick and Fiske (1996) investigated the multidimensionality of sexism by examining both the hostile and benevolent aspects of sexism. Step 1: Item Generation Glick and Fiske (1996) used deductive methods to develop their preliminary scale items. The item generation process was guided by theory definitions of hostile sexism, benevolent sexism, paternalism, gender differentiation, and heterosexuality. Taking these theories into account, Glick and Fiske (1996) labeled the two sets of related sexual beliefs (hostile and benevolent) as ambivalent sexism. Furthermore, their theory of ambivalent sexism shares some similarities with past research on ambivalent racism. The initial item pool consisted of 140 items on a five point likert scale. Hinkin (1998) suggests that the statements of the items should be as simple and short as possible, something that Glick and Fiske (1996) did seem to keep in mind. Double-barreled and leading questions / statements also seemed to be avoided for the most part. Hinkin alsoShow MoreRelatedStephen P. Robbins Timothy A. Judge (2011) Organizational Behaviour 15th Edition New Jersey: Prentice Hall393164 Words   |  1573 PagesOverview 23 †¢ Inputs 24 †¢ Processes 25 †¢ Outcomes 25 Summary and Implications for Managers 30 S A L Self-Assessment Library How Much Do I Know About Organizational Behavior? 4 Myth or Science? â€Å"Most Acts of Workplace Bullying Are Men Attacking Women† 12 An Ethical Choice Can You Learn from Failure? 24 glOBalization! Does National Culture Affect Organizational Practices? 30 Point/Counterpoint Lost in Translation? 31 Questions for Review 32 Experiential Exercise Workforce Diversity 32 Ethical Dilemma

Learning English A Lesson in Language and Culture Free Essays

string(125) " forms is intensely debated in Britain, where the world’s richest history of English has led to much linguistic diversity\." To those outside the educational system, the teaching of language may seem to be a simple communication of skills from one person to another.   For those involved in education, however, language instruction has long been linked to cultural bias and social engineering, leading to debates over the notion of a â€Å"neutral language.†Ã‚   Such a language would facilitate the exchange of objective concepts such as spelling, grammar, and pronunciation without imposing subjective cultural constructs such as beliefs abut class, gender, and religion. We will write a custom essay sample on Learning English: A Lesson in Language and Culture or any similar topic only for you Order Now As languages originate and develop in response to needs and conditions all too human, and therefore highly emotional, it is unlikely that any truly neutral language exists, and this is particularly evident when we consider the English language. The teaching of English has sociocultural implications that extend far beyond the learning environment, and this is best demonstrated by examining the relationship of Standard English to other varieties of English as well as to other languages being taught. The distinction between standard and vernacular forms of a language is based on the perceived differences between the educated and the uneducated.   The term â€Å"standard,† when used to describe language, generally refers to that form of the language that is used for formal and written applications by those who occupy the highest ranks of society.   Rules governing its usage tend to be rather strict and resistant to change. In contrast, a vernacular is the colloquial language used informally by a group of people, much less rigid in its forms and much more liable to change.   An online version of the Oxford English Dictionary, the recognized authority on the English language, exemplifies this divisiveness in its definition of the noun â€Å"vernacular† as â€Å"the language or dialect spoken by the ordinary people of a country or region.†Ã‚   Aligning the vernacular form with so-called â€Å"ordinary† folks naturally infers a similar association between the standard form and less ordinary people, the literate elite who use it. This lofty status is often justified by reference to the wealth of classical literature, historical documents, and scientific/technical writings that exist in both British and American Standar1d English.   An understanding of Standard English provides access to these canons and to the educational systems that utilize them.   These systems offer the knowledge and expertise necessary for the highest levels of professional and intellectual achievement.   Simply put, a better than average knowledge of Standard English offers a better than average chance at attaining prominence in highly skilled and specialized areas such as education, business, or technology (Brindley 208). Whether this effect is seen as favorable or unfavorable depends, as most things do, on the perspective through which it is viewed.   Any experience that affords people greater personal control over important life issues may seem universally appealing, yet insistence upon teaching only Standard English has evoked considerable controversy (Brindley 205).   Those who advocate the teaching of Standard English writing in a way that emphasizes its reliance on stringent rules and formats have been accused of perpetuating a desired status quo (Brindley 226-227). By learning Standard English, students are carrying on a long tradition of literary scholarship that has yielded many important intellectual gains and brought the western world to the forefront in industry and science.   Detractors see the teaching of Standard English as an imposition of social norms that depend on conformity and narrow-mindedness.   By forcing people to think in constrained ways about language, teachers are hindering both creativity and individuality for the sake of convention (Bourne 243). Such adherence to uniformity often puts the learner in an uncomfortable and confusing situation, as when the home background and the educational environment clash in terms of language.   Katharine Perera describes the difficulties encountered by children being taught Standard English while living in homes and neighborhoods where the vernacular is the mode of expression. For them, a change in their manner of speech represents an invalidation of their customary way of life and may create barriers between them and their peers.   The experience of speaking one way with friends or family who share their idiom, only to then be told by teachers that this language is wrong, forces most children to reluctantly choose one identity at the expense of the other (cited in Brindley 212). Concern over this loss of identity has fueled heated disputes in â€Å"mother-tongue† contexts, where English is taught as a first language and some form of it is used by much of the population as a native language (Brindley 206).   Davis and Watson report that in Australia, post-war migration increased the nation’s multiculturalism while weakening the influence of a common British legacy.   Responding to the resultant search for a national identity, the Australian curriculum acknowledges the relationship between this identity and language yet also recognizes the diversity that exists within â€Å"Australian Standard English† (cited in Brindley 206). The Australian Education Council’s statement on the English curriculum sets Australian English apart from American or British English chiefly by differences in vocabulary and pronunciation, and describes this national variety of English as a combination of the Standard Australian English used in schools and several vernacular forms, any one of which a student may use at home.  Ã‚   The curriculum statement also advises that Standard Australian English should be taught as an extension of local idioms and not as a replacement for them. Although the report further stresses importance of Australian Standard English because of its role in educational structures, professional fields, and spoken communication, it also recognizes the value of vernacular forms and the cultural backgrounds they represent.   Its national plan for teaching English also notes that language changes in respect to context and purposes, and it urges that students be made aware of this fact so they can apply their language skills accordingly.   The Council also officially confers equal status to standard and local forms of English, viewing neither one as inherently superior to the other (cited in Brindley 207) Sue Brindley relates that the issue of the relative worth of different language forms is intensely debated in Britain, where the world’s richest history of English has led to much linguistic diversity. You read "Learning English: A Lesson in Language and Culture" in category "Essay examples"   Standard English is an integral part of the official school curriculum, yet there is no consensus about exactly what constitutes standardized English and how it is connected to a student’s home variety (Brindley 208).   A Department for Education and Welsh Office statement cites strict observance to rules of vocabulary, grammar, spelling, and pronunciation as the distinguishing features of Standard English to be taught in England and Wales, yet this description is too vague to give a precise definition. Although the British policy encourages the use of standardized language for both written and spoken applications, it also recognizes that spoken English is more spontaneous and therefore less apt to conform to the same rigorous criteria used in more carefully planned written applications (cited in Brindley 210).   By associating Standard English with qualities like precision and clear diction, the British curriculum contradicts the viewpoint of many linguists and educators, as well as the sentiments expressed in the Australian English statement, by implying that school-sanctioned standardized forms are linguistically superior to other varieties (Brindley 211).   The obvious counterpart to this attitude is a belief that vernacular forms of English are inferior. Brindley speaks of educators who are concerned that such a prejudicial position will necessarily lead to a gradual erosion of the traditional cultural values that underlie the home life of those whose first language is the vernacular. Some teachers have taken it upon themselves to teach Standard English in a way that does not discriminate against home-based language varieties and, by extension, their associated ways of life. In this manner, they hope to allow students to derive the benefits inherent in a multicultural approach: a greater fund of knowledge about languages, a richer social experience, and a keener appreciation of different manners of thinking (212-213). In countries where the native language is not English, there is every bit as much controversy regarding the cultural aftereffects of learning English.   For people living in geographical areas marked by poverty and need, an education in English may be seen as a way to rise to the echelons of power and privilege.   Yet for those already enjoying that power and privilege, the promotion of English for the masses may be seen as either a welcome conversion or a dangerous threat.   Anthea Fraser Gupta’s account of the spread of English in colonial India traces the complicated history of the English empire’s influence over native Indians.   When Great Britain officially endorsed the teaching of English to Indians, the intent was to introduce not only the language of the United Kingdom but also its cultural and religious values. British officials were in effect attempting to create darker-skinned versions of themselves, seeing the inculcation of western ideals as a means of eradicating a way of life that they considered idolatrous, immoral, and unrefined ( 190-191).   At the same time, Indians in positions of power worried that giving the lower classes a glimpse of what was possible through an English education worked against their interests.   S.N. Mukherjee (cited in Gupta 192) reports that the Calcutta upper classes feared that those below their social rank would become dissatisfied with their inferior status. More than a hundred years after the events chronicled in Gupta’s account, teachers of English still encounter resistance from pupils who either feel that language is being forced upon them or resent social exclusion from English-speaking society (Bourne 243-244)..   Despite this, Jill Bourne informs us that the current trend in non-English speaking countries is to incorporate English language lessons into the primary school system.   Even in Malaysia, where this is not endorsed, private schools offer English instruction to students whose wealthy parents are willing to pay for what they perceive as an important step on the road to social success (244). Several countries, including Germany, the former Czech Republic, Hungary, Malay, and Hong Kong, have implemented some form of what America calls Language and Content Teaching, which blends language instruction with course content.   The focus is shifted from the English language to the curriculum material, which is presented through the medium of English.   However, in most parts of the world where English is taught, the emphasis remains on English as a subject itself (Bourne 244).   This suggests that for most nations, what is truly being sought is not an adoption of English values but the attainment of proficiency in a language that offers access to more profitable pursuits. It is easy to understand why countries such as Hong Kong, whose economy is deeply invested in international commerce, would feel pressured to acquire English fluency.   English is a major language of trade, and an inability to speak it proficiently is a definite disadvantage in the business arena.   This becomes clearer when we consider it on a smaller, more personal scale.   Anyone who has spent time among people who shared a common, foreign language knows the frustration and stigmatization that can result from an inability to communicate easily and appropriately with others. There is a natural human desire to feel connected to others in some way, and language provides an excellent means of achieving that sense of belonging.   When essential life factors such as economic, social, and professional standing are at stake, language becomes even more crucial. This relationship between modes of communication and key life issues is precisely why the concept of a neutral language is a hypothetical one.   The teaching of any language involves the transmission of much more than rules about grammar and pronunciation.   It inevitably requires some measure of cultural change on the part of the learner, and in the case of English instruction those changes can have profound effects upon many major aspects of life.   For this reason, educators and students alike must respect the various forms of language as reflections of valuable cultural and social traditions. Works Cited Bourne, Jill. â€Å"English for Speakers of Other Languages.† Learning English: Development and Diversity. Eds. Neil Mercer and Joan Swann. UK: The Open University, 2002, 243-270. Brindley, Sue, with contributions from Swann, Joan. â€Å"Issues in English Teaching.† Learning English: Development and Diversity. Eds. Neil Mercer and Joan Swann. UK: The Open University, 2002, 205-228. Gupta, Anthea Fraser. â€Å"English and Empire: Teaching English in Nineteenth Century India.† Learning English:   Development and Diversity. Eds. Neil Mercer and Joan Swann. UK: The Open University, 2002, 188-194. â€Å"vernacular.† Compact Oxford English Dictionary. 2005. http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/vernacular?view=uk (3 Dec. 2005). How to cite Learning English: A Lesson in Language and Culture, Essay examples

Can We Save Planet Earth free essay sample

These megacities affect every aspect of the planets assets. The toxic effects of the industrial revolution have significantly imprinted our planet! This type of pollution is constantly being released into the atmosphere, twenty four seven, to maintain electricity, not to mention all the other industrial processes taking place for manufacturing of all the items every person on the plant uses daily. I have personally experienced the horror of the toxins of industrialization; I once lived in an industrial town on Lake Erie, in Ohio. All of my family that lived in this area, died there, from various types of cancers. Some days I could not see two feet out the front door. I moved to Florida, but most of my family lived and died there. Now in my home state of Florida, the Elkhorn coral is endangered with white spot disease caused by bacteria. Research has found that this type of bacteria is responsible for killing many corals in the shallow reefs of the Florida Keys. This particular bacterium is found in the intestines of both humans and animals. This articular bacterium is only affecting one species of coral, the once common Elkhorn coral. This type of coral is now hard to find in the Florida waters and will soon be in the endangered species category. Another major cause of marine pollution is oil spills, and the tedious work of cleaning them up. One study examines the development of safeguards against marine oil pollution in Alaska since the 1989 Exxon Valdez disaster, in which oil spilled from the tanker Exxon Valdez. Busengerg, G. ((2009), May). The potential threat of marine pollution caused by offshore oil and gas development activities in reas like the South China Sea are killing the sea life, and destroying the oceans, Song, Y. ((2008), April-Jun). Oil spills are usually unintentional releases of liquid petroleum at sea. Even small amounts of petroleum hydrocarbons hurt marine life and seabirds. Oil is heavier than water and soaks into the seabed and usually takes years to dissipate. Some popular ways to clean up the spills are dredging, skimming, dispersing, and bioremediation, but time is the only real effective method. Just killing sea life and polluting the land and waters in my home state of Florida. This oil pill will prove to be worse than the Exxon Valdez spill of 1989. The land and the oceans, as well as the atmosphere have been polluted. The water pollution is so great in the South China Sea, they are harvesting dead fish. Just imagine having to take the risk of eating dead fish because the pollution has killed the sea life, and that is all that is all that is left in the polluted oceans for food to feed your family, not to mention this is how most of the people native to this area make a living. These Chinese people rely on the sea life in the oceans for commercial trade to support their families. If this water pollution is not stopped, this area could become a starving society, like is prevalent in Africa. It is further alleged the atmospheric pollution has affected the earths climate and ozone layers. Some studies show over the past century, greenhouse gases and other air pollutants released into the atmosphere have been causing big changes like global warming, ozone holes, and acid rain. It is quite controversial as to the validity of societys toxic trends being responsible for climate changes. Without human presence on earth would the climate be changing, or is it Just propaganda from our overnment to hide information from us, or control our thinking? Is there actually a hole in the earths ozone layer? If this is a fact, what is the cause? Some argue; it is a natural transition of the earth over hundreds of thousands of years. However tragic, these stats and opinions are good food for thought! Ozone is an unusual type of oxygen molecule, which protects us from ultraviolet radiation in sunlight. That is why holes in the ozone layer are very bad news. The University Corporation for Atmospheric Research (UCAR). Retrieved from: Some scientists say the earths climate is warming! During the 20th Century, Earths average temperature rose 0. 60 Celsius (1. 1 OF). ). Scientists are finding that the change in temperature has been causing other aspects of our planet to change. The effects of global warming are far reaching say some. I encourage you to do more research on this subject before making a final decision. Make an informed intellectual decision after weighing all the facts, not Just concluding from one sided biased opinions. U. S. Environmental Protection Agency is very aware of the pollution issues and has been monitoring and putting laws in effect for many years. Retrieved from: Milagro, (Windows to the Universe) Under the Clean Air Act, EPA sets limits on how much of a pollutant is allowed in the air anywhere in the United States. Although national air quality has improved over the last 20 years, many challenges remain in protecting public health and the environment. There are multiple other environmental agencies at work to stop the toxic trends, such as DEFRA, Global Atmosphere Watch, Greenpeace, National Ambient Air Quality Standards, and Clean Air Act. Also the Clean Water Act, Kyoto Protocol, Water Pollution Control Act, and the Environmental Protection Act 1990. Below is a photo of the air pollution in Mexico City. It is unthinkable to have to live in this unhealthy condition, remember this is the area the recent Swine Flu, (HI NI) originated. I think this is a wake up call!! years from the late 1970s to the late 1990s but have actually been cooling the last eleven years. The global warming and subsequent cooling were even predictable due to hundreds of years of historical trends and observation of the impact of variations in solar activity on global temperature. Europe, North America and many other area of the Earth have recently experienced a score of unusually low emperatures. So where is the global warming that we are preparing for? If the past is a predictor of the future the earth is headed into a 30 year period of global cooling.